Primary pollutants are directly produced from the above sources, and secondary pollutants are emitted as by-products of the primary ones. Pollutants can be biodegradable or non-biodegradable and of natural origin or anthropogenic, as stated previously.
Moreover, their origin can be a unique source point-source or dispersed sources. Pollutants have differences in physical and chemical properties, explaining the discrepancy in their capacity for producing toxic effects. As an example, we state here that aerosol compounds 41 — 43 have a greater toxicity than gaseous compounds due to their tiny size solid or liquid in the atmosphere; they have a greater penetration capacity.
Gaseous compounds are eliminated more easily by our respiratory system These particles are able to damage lungs and can even enter the bloodstream 41 , leading to the premature deaths of millions of people yearly. Air pollution and climate change are closely related. Climate is the other side of the same coin that reduces the quality of our Earth Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and aerosols affect the amount of incoming sunlight.
As a result, the temperature of the Earth is increasing, resulting in the melting of ice, icebergs, and glaciers. In this vein, climatic changes will affect the incidence and prevalence of both residual and imported infections in Europe.
Climate and weather affect the duration, timing, and intensity of outbreaks strongly and change the map of infectious diseases in the globe Mosquito-transmitted parasitic or viral diseases are extremely climate-sensitive, as warming firstly shortens the pathogen incubation period and secondly shifts the geographic map of the vector.
Similarly, water-warming following climate changes leads to a high incidence of waterborne infections. Recently, in Europe, eradicated diseases seem to be emerging due to the migration of population, for example, cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-borne encephalitis, and malaria The spread of epidemics is associated with natural climate disasters and storms, which seem to occur more frequently nowadays Malnutrition and disequilibration of the immune system are also associated with the emerging infections affecting public health An increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom and in the Czech Republic seems to have occurred following flooding 36 , As stated previously, aerosols compounds are tiny in size and considerably affect the climate.
They are able to dissipate sunlight the albedo phenomenon by dispersing a quarter of the sun's rays back to space and have cooled the global temperature over the last 30 years The World Health Organization WHO reports on six major air pollutants, namely particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead.
Air pollution can have a disastrous effect on all components of the environment, including groundwater, soil, and air. Additionally, it poses a serious threat to living organisms. In this vein, our interest is mainly to focus on these pollutants, as they are related to more extensive and severe problems in human health and environmental impact. Acid rain, global warming, the greenhouse effect, and climate changes have an important ecological impact on air pollution Studies have shown a relationship between particulate matter PM and adverse health effects, focusing on either short-term acute or long-term chronic PM exposure.
Particulate matter PM is usually formed in the atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between the different pollutants. The penetration of particles is closely dependent on their size Particulate matter contains tiny liquid or solid droplets that can be inhaled and cause serious health effects Fine particles, PM 2. Multiple epidemiological studies have been performed on the health effects of PM. A positive relation was shown between both short-term and long-term exposures of PM 2.
In addition, long-term exposure to PM for years was found to be related to cardiovascular diseases and infant mortality. Those studies depend on PM 2. The team developed a PM 2. This model permits spatial resolution in short-term effects plus the assessment of long-term effects in the whole population.
Moreover, respiratory diseases and affection of the immune system are registered as long-term chronic effects It is worth noting that people with asthma, pneumonia, diabetes, and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases are especially susceptible and vulnerable to the effects of PM. The particles produce toxic effects according to their chemical and physical properties. The components of PM 10 and PM 2. Particulate Matter PM is divided into four main categories according to type and size 61 Table 2.
Particulate contaminants include contaminants such as smog, soot, tobacco smoke, oil smoke, fly ash, and cement dust. Biological Contaminants are microorganisms bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold, and bacterial spores , cat allergens, house dust and allergens, and pollen.
Types of Dust include suspended atmospheric dust, settling dust, and heavy dust. Finally, another fact is that the half-lives of PM 10 and PM 2. They are able to change the nutrient balance in watery ecosystems, damage forests and crops, and acidify water bodies. As stated, PM 2. Ozone O 3 is a gas formed from oxygen under high voltage electric discharge It arises in the stratosphere, but it could also arise following chain reactions of photochemical smog in the troposphere Ozone can travel to distant areas from its initial source, moving with air masses It is surprising that ozone levels over cities are low in contrast to the increased amounts occuring in urban areas, which could become harmful for cultures, forests, and vegetation 65 as it is reducing carbon assimilation Ozone reduces growth and yield 47 , 48 and affects the plant microflora due to its antimicrobial capacity 67 , In this regard, ozone acts upon other natural ecosystems, with microflora 69 , 70 and animal species changing their species composition Ozone increases DNA damage in epidermal keratinocytes and leads to impaired cellular function Ozone uptake usually occurs by inhalation.
Ozone affects the upper layers of the skin and the tear ducts A study of short-term exposure of mice to high levels of ozone showed malondialdehyde formation in the upper skin epidermis but also depletion in vitamins C and E.
It is likely that ozone levels are not interfering with the skin barrier function and integrity to predispose to skin disease Due to the low water-solubility of ozone, inhaled ozone has the capacity to penetrate deeply into the lungs Toxic effects induced by ozone are registered in urban areas all over the world, causing biochemical, morphologic, functional, and immunological disorders Daily ozone concentrations compared to the daily number of deaths were reported from different European cities for a 3-year period.
During the warm period of the year, an observed increase in ozone concentration was associated with an increase in the daily number of deaths 0. No effect was observed during wintertime. Carbon monoxide is produced by fossil fuel when combustion is incomplete.
The symptoms of poisoning due to inhaling carbon monoxide include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and, finally, loss of consciousness. The affinity of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is much greater than that of oxygen. In this vein, serious poisoning may occur in people exposed to high levels of carbon monoxide for a long period of time.
Due to the loss of oxygen as a result of the competitive binding of carbon monoxide, hypoxia, ischemia, and cardiovascular disease are observed. Carbon monoxide affects the greenhouses gases that are tightly connected to global warming and climate. This should lead to an increase in soil and water temperatures, and extreme weather conditions or storms may occur However, in laboratory and field experiments, it has been seen to produce increased plant growth Nitrogen oxide is a traffic-related pollutant, as it is emitted from automobile motor engines 79 , It is an irritant of the respiratory system as it penetrates deep in the lung, inducing respiratory diseases, coughing, wheezing, dyspnea, bronchospasm, and even pulmonary edema when inhaled at high levels.
It seems that concentrations over 0. It is reported that long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide can be responsible for chronic lung disease. Long-term exposure to NO 2 can impair the sense of smell However, systems other than respiratory ones can be involved, as symptoms such as eye, throat, and nose irritation have been registered High levels of nitrogen dioxide are deleterious to crops and vegetation, as they have been observed to reduce crop yield and plant growth efficiency.
Moreover, NO 2 can reduce visibility and discolor fabrics Sulfur dioxide is a harmful gas that is emitted mainly from fossil fuel consumption or industrial activities. The annual standard for SO 2 is 0. It affects human, animal, and plant life. Susceptible people as those with lung disease, old people, and children, who present a higher risk of damage. The major health problems associated with sulfur dioxide emissions in industrialized areas are respiratory irritation, bronchitis, mucus production, and bronchospasm, as it is a sensory irritant and penetrates deep into the lung converted into bisulfite and interacting with sensory receptors, causing bronchoconstriction.
Moreover, skin redness, damage to the eyes lacrimation and corneal opacity and mucous membranes, and worsening of pre-existing cardiovascular disease have been observed Environmental adverse effects, such as acidification of soil and acid rain, seem to be associated with sulfur dioxide emissions Lead is a heavy metal used in different industrial plants and emitted from some petrol motor engines, batteries, radiators, waste incinerators, and waste waters Moreover, major sources of lead pollution in the air are metals, ore, and piston-engine aircraft.
Lead poisoning is a threat to public health due to its deleterious effects upon humans, animals, and the environment, especially in the developing countries. Exposure to lead can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption.
Trans- placental transport of lead was also reported, as lead passes through the placenta unencumbered The younger the fetus is, the more harmful the toxic effects. Lead toxicity affects the fetal nervous system; edema or swelling of the brain is observed Lead, when inhaled, accumulates in the blood, soft tissue, liver, lung, bones, and cardiovascular, nervous, and reproductive systems.
Moreover, loss of concentration and memory, as well as muscle and joint pain, were observed in adults 85 , Children and newborns 87 are extremely susceptible even to minimal doses of lead, as it is a neurotoxicant and causes learning disabilities, impairment of memory, hyperactivity, and even mental retardation. Elevated amounts of lead in the environment are harmful to plants and crop growth.
Neurological effects are observed in vertebrates and animals in association with high lead levels The distribution of PAHs is ubiquitous in the environment, as the atmosphere is the most important means of their dispersal.
They are found in coal and in tar sediments. Moreover, they are generated through incomplete combustion of organic matter as in the cases of forest fires, incineration, and engines PAH compounds, such as benzopyrene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, and fluoranthene are recognized as toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic substances. They are an important risk factor for lung cancer Volatile organic compounds VOCs , such as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene 90 , have been found to be associated with cancer in humans The use of new products and materials has actually resulted in increased concentrations of VOCs.
VOCs pollute indoor air 90 and may have adverse effects on human health Short-term and long-term adverse effects on human health are observed. VOCs are responsible for indoor air smells. Short-term exposure is found to cause irritation of eyes, nose, throat, and mucosal membranes, while those of long duration exposure include toxic reactions Predictable assessment of the toxic effects of complex VOC mixtures is difficult to estimate, as these pollutants can have synergic, antagonistic, or indifferent effects 91 , Dioxins originate from industrial processes but also come from natural processes, such as forest fires and volcanic eruptions.
They accumulate in foods such as meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish, and especially in the fatty tissue of animals Short-period exhibition to high dioxin concentrations may result in dark spots and lesions on the skin Long-term exposure to dioxins can cause developmental problems, impairment of the immune, endocrine and nervous systems, reproductive infertility, and cancer Without any doubt, fossil fuel consumption is responsible for a sizeable part of air contamination.
This contamination may be anthropogenic, as in agricultural and industrial processes or transportation, while contamination from natural sources is also possible. Interestingly, it is of note that the air quality standards established through the European Air Quality Directive are somewhat looser than the WHO guidelines, which are stricter The most common air pollutants are ground-level ozone and Particulates Matter PM.
Air pollution is distinguished into two main types:. Indoor pollution is the pollution generated by household combustion of fuels.
People exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants experience disease symptoms and states of greater and lesser seriousness. These effects are grouped into short- and long-term effects affecting health. Susceptible populations that need to be aware of health protection measures include old people, children, and people with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, especially asthma. As extensively stated previously, according to a recent epidemiological study from Harvard School of Public Health, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects have not been completely clarified 57 due to the different epidemiological methodologies and to the exposure errors.
New models are proposed for assessing short- and long-term human exposure data more successfully Thus, in the present section, we report the more common short- and long-term health effects but also general concerns for both types of effects, as these effects are often dependent on environmental conditions, dose, and individual susceptibility.
Short-term effects are temporary and range from simple discomfort, such as irritation of the eyes, nose, skin, throat, wheezing, coughing and chest tightness, and breathing difficulties, to more serious states, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and lung and heart problems.
Short-term exposure to air pollution can also cause headaches, nausea, and dizziness. These problems can be aggravated by extended long-term exposure to the pollutants, which is harmful to the neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems and causes cancer and even, rarely, deaths.
The long-term effects are chronic, lasting for years or the whole life and can even lead to death. Furthermore, the toxicity of several air pollutants may also induce a variety of cancers in the long term As stated already, respiratory disorders are closely associated with the inhalation of air pollutants.
These pollutants will invade through the airways and will accumulate at the cells. Damage to target cells should be related to the pollutant component involved and its source and dose. Health effects are also closely dependent on country, area, season, and time. An extended exposure duration to the pollutant should incline to long-term health effects in relation also to the above factors. Particulate Matter PMs , dust, benzene, and O 3 cause serious damage to the respiratory system Moreover, there is a supplementary risk in case of existing respiratory disease such as asthma Long-term effects are more frequent in people with a predisposing disease state.
When the trachea is contaminated by pollutants, voice alterations may be remarked after acute exposure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease COPD may be induced following air pollution, increasing morbidity and mortality Long-term effects from traffic, industrial air pollution, and combustion of fuels are the major factors for COPD risk Multiple cardiovascular effects have been observed after exposure to air pollutants Changes occurred in blood cells after long-term exposure may affect cardiac functionality.
Coronary arteriosclerosis was reported following long-term exposure to traffic emissions , while short-term exposure is related to hypertension, stroke, myocardial infracts, and heart insufficiency. Ventricle hypertrophy is reported to occur in humans after long-time exposure to nitrogen oxide NO 2 , Neurological effects have been observed in adults and children after extended-term exposure to air pollutants.
Psychological complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight seem to be related to long-term air pollution The etiologic agent of the neurodegenerative diseases Alzheimer's and Parkinson's is not yet known, although it is believed that extended exposure to air pollution seems to be a factor. Specifically, pesticides and metals are cited as etiological factors, together with diet.
The mechanisms in the development of neurodegenerative disease include oxidative stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial impairment in neurons Figure 1. Brain inflammation was observed in dogs living in a highly polluted area in Mexico for a long period In human adults, markers of systemic inflammation IL-6 and fibrinogen were found to be increased as an immediate response to PNC on the IL-6 level, possibly leading to the production of acute-phase proteins The progression of atherosclerosis and oxidative stress seem to be the mechanisms involved in the neurological disturbances caused by long-term air pollution.
Inflammation comes secondary to the oxidative stress and seems to be involved in the impairment of developmental maturation, affecting multiple organs , Similarly, other factors seem to be involved in the developmental maturation, which define the vulnerability to long-term air pollution. These include birthweight, maternal smoking, genetic background and socioeconomic environment, as well as education level.
However, diet, starting from breast-feeding, is another determinant factor. Diet is the main source of antioxidants, which play a key role in our protection against air pollutants Antioxidants are free radical scavengers and limit the interaction of free radicals in the brain Similarly, genetic background may result in a differential susceptibility toward the oxidative stress pathway For example, antioxidant supplementation with vitamins C and E appears to modulate the effect of ozone in asthmatic children homozygous for the GSTM1 null allele Inflammatory cytokines released in the periphery e.
Such activation and the subsequent events leading to neurodegeneration have recently been observed in lung lavage in mice exposed to ambient Los Angeles CA, USA particulate matter In children, neurodevelopmental morbidities were observed after lead exposure.
These children developed aggressive and delinquent behavior, reduced intelligence, learning difficulties, and hyperactivity It is important to state that impact on the immune system, causing dysfunction and neuroinflammation , is related to poor air quality.
Yet, increases in serum levels of immunoglobulins IgA, IgM and the complement component C3 are observed Another issue is that antigen presentation is affected by air pollutants, as there is an upregulation of costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86 on macrophages As is known, skin is our shield against ultraviolet radiation UVR and other pollutants, as it is the most exterior layer of our body. On the one hand, as already stated, when pollutants penetrate through the skin or are inhaled, damage to the organs is observed, as some of these pollutants are mutagenic and carcinogenic, and, specifically, they affect the liver and lung.
On the other hand, air pollutants and those in the troposphere reduce the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation UVR in polluted urban areas Air pollutants absorbed by the human skin may contribute to skin aging, psoriasis, acne, urticaria, eczema, and atopic dermatitis , usually caused by exposure to oxides and photochemical smoke Exposure to PM and cigarette smoking act as skin-aging agents, causing spots, dyschromia, and wrinkles.
Lastly, pollutants have been associated with skin cancer Higher morbidity is reported to fetuses and children when exposed to the above dangers.
Impairment in fetal growth, low birth weight, and autism have been reported Another exterior organ that may be affected is the eye. Contamination usually comes from suspended pollutants and may result in asymptomatic eye outcomes, irritation , retinopathy, or dry eye syndrome , Air pollution is harming not only human health but also the environment in which we live.
The most important environmental effects are as follows. Acid rain is wet rain, fog, snow or dry particulates and gas precipitation containing toxic amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. They are able to acidify the water and soil environments, damage trees and plantations, and even damage buildings and outdoor sculptures, constructions, and statues. Haze is produced when fine particles are dispersed in the air and reduce the transparency of the atmosphere. It is caused by gas emissions in the air coming from industrial facilities, power plants, automobiles, and trucks.
Ozone , as discussed previously, occurs both at ground level and in the upper level stratosphere of the Earth's atmosphere. Stratospheric ozone is protecting us from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet UV rays. In contrast, ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and is a pollutant. Unfortunately, stratospheric ozone is gradually damaged by ozone-depleting substances i.
If this protecting stratospheric ozone layer is thinned, then UV radiation can reach our Earth, with harmful effects for human life skin cancer and crops In plants, ozone penetrates through the stomata, inducing them to close, which blocks CO 2 transfer and induces a reduction in photosynthesis Global climate change is an important issue that concerns mankind. Unhappily, anthropogenic activities have destroyed this protecting temperature effect by producing large amounts of greenhouse gases, and global warming is mounting, with harmful effects on human health, animals, forests, wildlife, agriculture, and the water environment.
A report states that global warming is adding to the health risks of poor people People living in poorly constructed buildings in warm-climate countries are at high risk for heat-related health problems as temperatures mount Wildlife is burdened by toxic pollutants coming from the air, soil, or the water ecosystem and, in this way, animals can develop health problems when exposed to high levels of pollutants.
Reproductive failure and birth effects have been reported. Eutrophication is occurring when elevated concentrations of nutrients especially nitrogen stimulate the blooming of aquatic algae, which can cause a disequilibration in the diversity of fish and their deaths. Without a doubt, there is a critical concentration of pollution that an ecosystem can tolerate without being destroyed, which is associated with the ecosystem's capacity to neutralize acidity.
Hence, air pollution has deleterious effects on both soil and water Concerning PM as an air pollutant, its impact on crop yield and food productivity has been reported.
Its impact on watery bodies is associated with the survival of living organisms and fishes and their productivity potential An impairment in photosynthetic rhythm and metabolism is observed in plants exposed to the effects of ozone Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are involved in the formation of acid rain and are harmful to plants and marine organisms.
Last but not least, as mentioned above, the toxicity associated with lead and other metals is the main threat to our ecosystems air, water, and soil and living creatures Undoubtedly, children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, especially during their development.
Air pollution has adverse effects on our lives in many different respects. Diseases associated with air pollution have not only an important economic impact but also a societal impact due to absences from productive work and school. Despite the difficulty of eradicating the problem of anthropogenic environmental pollution, a successful solution could be envisaged as a tight collaboration of authorities, bodies, and doctors to regularize the situation. Governments should spread sufficient information and educate people and should involve professionals in these issues so as to control the emergence of the problem successfully.
Technologies to reduce air pollution at the source must be established and should be used in all industries and power plants.
This was followed by the Copenhagen summit, , and then the Durban summit of , where it was decided to keep to the same line of action. The Kyoto protocol and the subsequent ones were ratified by many countries. As is known, China is a fast-developing economy and its GDP Gross Domestic Product is expected to be very high by , which is defined as the year of dissolution of the protocol for the decrease in gas emissions. This latest agreement was ratified by a plethora of UN United Nations countries as well as the countries of the European Union In this vein, parties should promote actions and measures to enhance numerous aspects around the subject.
Boosting education, training, public awareness, and public participation are some of the relevant actions for maximizing the opportunities to achieve the targets and goals on the crucial matter of climate change and environmental pollution Without any doubt, technological improvements makes our world easier and it seems difficult to reduce the harmful impact caused by gas emissions, we could limit its use by seeking reliable approaches.
Synopsizing, a global prevention policy should be designed in order to combat anthropogenic air pollution as a complement to the correct handling of the adverse health effects associated with air pollution. Sustainable development practices should be applied, together with information coming from research in order to handle the problem effectively.
At this point, international cooperation in terms of research, development, administration policy, monitoring, and politics is vital for effective pollution control.
Legislation concerning air pollution must be aligned and updated, and policy makers should propose the design of a powerful tool of environmental and health protection. As a result, the main proposal of this essay is that we should focus on fostering local structures to promote experience and practice and extrapolate these to the international level through developing effective policies for sustainable management of ecosystems.
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. The remaining authors declare that the present review paper was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Air Pollution. Google Scholar. Moores FC. Climate change and air pollution: exploring the synergies and potential for mitigation in industrializing countries.
Climate Change Impacts by Sectors: Ecosystems. Cambridge University Press. How hope and doubt affect climate change mobilization. Long- term air pollution exposure and diabetes in a population-based Swiss cohort. Environ Int. Kelishadi R, Poursafa P. Air pollution and non-respiratory health hazards for children.
Arch Med Sci. Manucci PM, Franchini M. Health effects of ambient air pollution in developing countries. Hashim D, Boffetta P. Occupational and environmental exposures and cancers in developing countries. Ann Glob Health. The burden of lung cancer mortality attributable to fine particles in China.
Total Environ Sci. An evaluation of resident exposure to respirable particulate matter and health economic loss in Beijing during Beijing Olympic Games. Sci Total Environ. Ambient air pollution, climate change, and population health in China. Environmental exposures and cardiovascular disease: a challenge for health and development in low- and middle-income countries. Cardiol Clin. Indoor air pollution in india: implications on health and its control. Indian J Comm Med. Indoor air quality and ventilation assessment of rural mountainous households of Nepal.
Int J Sust Built Env. Atmos Environ. Indoor air pollution from unprocessed solid fuel use and pneumonia risk in children aged under five years: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Bull World Health Organ. Air Quality assessment in a heavily-polluted urban Mediterranean environment through Air Quality indices. Ecol Indic. An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.
N Engl J Med. Landesumweltamt des Landes Nordrhein Westfalen. Newlands M. University of East London, United Kingdom Bull A. Santiago: Nationes Unidas, Cepal Spiegel J, Maystre LY. European Community Reports. Gibson R, Ward S. Parties in the digital age; a review. J Represent Democracy. Kaun A, Uldam J. Digital activism: after the hype. New Media Soc. Sivitanides M, Shah V. The era of digital activism. Future research needs associated with the assessment of potential human health risks from exposure to toxic ambient air pollutants.
Environ Health Perspect. Atmospheric Pollution: History, Science, and Regulation. Cambridge University Press Stover RH. Flooding of soil for disease control. In: Mulder D, editor. Chapter 3. Developments in Agricultural and Managed Forest Ecology. Elsevier Seasonal fluctuation of bacterial indicators in coastal waters.
Microb Ecol Health Dis. Occurrence of Clostridium perfringens in river water by using a new procedure. DCP, Chapter Carousel Previous. Carousel Next. What is Scribd? Did you find this document useful? Is this content inappropriate? Report this Document. Flag for inappropriate content. Download now. Save Save Words For Later.
Related titles. Carousel Previous Carousel Next. Jump to Page. Search inside document. Documents Similar To Words. Shashi Kant Singh. Edison Flores. Competitive Enterprise Institute. Kristine J McAdams Lancaster. Saadiah Md Noor. Alex Raynor. Abid Yusuf. Michael Davenport. Sharul Hakimi. Gurpartap Singh. John Phillpotts. Jose Lopez. Mustafa Zarir. Caitlyn Kelleher. Peter Jay.
0コメント